Programmed learning in chemistry education: a critical review of theory, application, and effectiveness

Abstract

This scoping review examines the historical trajectory, theoretical underpinnings, and efficacy of programmed learning in chemistry education from its behaviourist origins to contemporary adaptive learning systems. Through a systematic analysis of the literature following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we mapped the field's evolution across secondary and tertiary education levels. Our findings reveal that programmed learning, when applied to specific chemistry domains such as stereochemistry and chemical bonding, shows moderate effectiveness in enhancing conceptual understanding and student achievement. The contemporary manifestations of programmed learning principles in technology-enhanced, adaptive learning environments demonstrate particular promise for personalising instruction and addressing diverse student needs. However, challenges persist in fostering higher-order thinking skills and in implementation contexts with limited resources. This review highlights the importance of balancing structured guidance with constructivist approaches, identifying a theoretical convergence that maintains programmed learning's systematic design while incorporating student-centred pedagogies. Critical gaps include limited longitudinal studies examining knowledge retention and insufficient research on teacher experiences and implementation fidelity. We present an integrative framework for future programmed learning applications in chemistry education that emphasises adaptive scaffolding, contextualised learning, and metacognitive development.